Zimbabwe

Republic of Zimbabwe
Flag
Motto: "Unity, Freedom, Work"
Anthem: Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe  (Shona) Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe  (Sindebele) "Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe"
Capital (and largest city)		Harare
Official language(s)		English
Recognised regional languages		Shona, Ndebele
Demonym		Zimbabwean
Government		Semi presidential, parliamentary, consociationalist republic
-	President	Robert Mugabe
-	Prime Minister	Morgan Tsvangirai
-	Vice President	Joice Mujuru John Nkomo
-	Deputy Prime Minister	Thokozani Khuphe Arthur Mutambara
Independence		from the United Kingdom
-	Established	1901
-	Proclaimed	11 November 1965
-	Recognized	18 April 1980
Area
-	Total	390,757 km2 (60th) 150,871 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1
Population
-	2009 estimate	12,521,000[1] (68th)
-	Density	26/km2 (170th) 57/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2009 estimate
-	Total	$4.164 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$355[2]
GDP (nominal)		2009 estimate
-	Total	$4.397 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$374[2]
Gini (2009)		50.1[3] (high)
Currency		none a
Time zone		Central Africa Time (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	Not observed (UTC+2)
Drives on the		left
Internet TLD		.zw
Calling code		+263
^a The Zimbabwean dollar is no longer in active use after it was officially suspended by the government due to hyperinflation. The United States dollar, South African rand, Botswanan pula, Pound sterling, and Euro are now used instead. The US dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions with the new power-sharing regime.

Zimbabwe (English pronunciation: /zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ/ zim-BAHB-we; officially the Republic of Zimbabwe and formerly Southern Rhodesia, the Republic of Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia) is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the continent of Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three official languages: English, Shona (a Bantu language), and Ndebele (also a Bantu language).

Zimbabwe began as a part of the British crown colony of Rhodesia. President Robert Mugabe is the head of State and Commander in Chief of the armed forces. Morgan Tsvangirai is the Prime Minister. Mugabe has been in power since the country's long war for independence. Although his administration was initially credited with improving the standard of living and the economy during the 1980s, his rule has been characterized by gross economic mismanagement, hyperinflation, and reports of human rights abuses.^[4] The collapse of the nation's economy and widespread poverty and unemployment has increased support for Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai and his opposition party, Movement for Democratic Change, who in late 2008 agreed to share power with Mugabe.

Etymology

The name Zimbabwe derives from "Dzimba dza mabwe," meaning "House of stone" in the Shona language.^[5].

Geography and environment

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa. Most of the country is elevated in the central plateau (high veld) stretching from the southwest to the northwest at altitudes between 1200 and 1600m. The country's east is mountainous with Mt. Nyangani as the highest point at 2,592 m. About 20% of the country consists of the low veld under 900m. Victoria Falls, one of the world's biggest and most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's northwest as part of the Zambesi river. The country has a tropical climate with a rainy season usually from November to March. The climate is moderated by the altitude.

Environmental issues

Large parts of Zimbabwe have previously been covered by forest, the African bush, with an abundant wildlife. Poverty, population growth and lack of fuel have led to extensive deforestation, which, along with poaching, has reduced the wildlife considerably. Deforestation and woodland degradation are a major concern^[6] and have led to erosion and land degradation which diminish the amount of fertile soil. Poor mining practices have led to localized toxic waste and metal pollution^[7].

History

By the Middle Ages, there was a civilization that occupied the region, evidenced by ruins at Great Zimbabwe, near Masvingo, and other smaller sites. The main archaeological site is a unique dry stone architecture. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Muslim merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th century. This was the precursor to the more impressive Shona civilizations that would dominate the region.

Towers of Great Zimbabwe

Pre-Colonial era (1000–1887)

Proto-Shona speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the center of subsequent Shona states. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of Great Zimbabwe. From circa 1450–1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the Kingdom of Mutapa. This Shona state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as Mwene Mutapa or Monomotapa as well as "Munhumutapa," and was renowned for its gold trade routes with Arabs and the Portuguese. However, Portuguese settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.^[8] As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Shona state emerged called the Rozwi Empire. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (which means "destroyers") removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms. The Rozwi continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding guns to its arsenal and developing a professional army to protect its trade routes and conquests.

Around 1821, a lieutenant of King Shaka, Mzilikazi (meaning The Great Road) successfully rebelled from the Zulu and fled northwards into the Transvaal with his newly founded tribe: the Ndebele, beginning an era of widespread killings and devastation known as the Mfecane. When the Boer settlers arrived in the Transvaal in 1836 during the great trek they attacked the Ndebele and drove the tribe even further northward. In 1837–38, the Rozwi Empire along with other Shona states were conquered by the Ndebele and forced to pay tribute and concentrate in the northeast of present-day Zimbabwe. After loosing the Transvaal in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland and established Bulawayo as their capital. Mzilikazi then organized his followers into a military system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka, which became strong enough to repel the Boer attacks of 1847 - 1851 and persuade the government of the South African Republic to sign a peace treaty with him in 1852. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and after a brief, violent power struggle was succeed by his son, Lobengula.

Colonial era (1888–1965)

Matabeleland in the 1800s.

In the 1880s, the British arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa Company. In 1898, the name Southern Rhodesia was adopted.^[9] In 1888, British colonialist Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples.^[10] Cecil Rhodes presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a royal charter to his British South Africa Company (BSAC) over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as Mashonaland. Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the Pioneer Column, a group of white settlers protected by well-armed British South Africa Police (BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (now Harare). In 1893-94, with the help of their new maxim guns the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the First Matabele War, a war which also resulted in the death of King Lobengula. Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika, then known as 'Zambesia'. In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,^[11] Cecil Rhodes promoted the colonisation of the region's land, with British control over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources.^[12] In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name 'Rhodesia' for the territory of Zambesia, in honour of Cecil Rhodes. In 1898 'Southern Rhodesia' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi,^[13] which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).

Shortly after the disastrous Jameson Raid of the BSAP into the South African Republic, the Ndebele were led by their spiritual leader Mlimo against the white colonials and thus began the Second Matabele War (1896-97). The Shona also staged unsuccessful revolts (known as Chimurenga) against encroachment upon their lands, by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897.^[14] Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating European settlement en masse which led to land distribution disproportionately favouring Europeans, displacing the Shona, Ndebele, and other indigenous peoples.

Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony in October 1923, subsequent to a 1922 referendum. Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa.

In 1953, in the face of African opposition,^[15] Britain consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with Nyasaland in the ill-fated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia. Growing African nationalism and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the Union in 1963, forming three colonies. As colonial rule was ending throughout the continent and as African-majority governments assumed control in neighbouring Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and in Nyasaland (Malawi), the white-minority Rhodesian government led by Ian Smith dropped the designation "Southern" and made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (commonly abbreviated to "UDI") from the United Kingdom on November 11, 1965, effectively repudiating the British plan that the country should become a multi-racial democracy.

UDI and civil war (1965–1979)

Ian Smith signing the Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet watching.

After UDI, the British government requested United Nations economic sanctions against Rhodesia as negotiations with the Smith administration in 1966 and 1968 ended in stalemate. The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. A civil war ensued, with Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) using assistance from the governments of Zambia and Mozambique (the latter following its independence from Portugal in 1975). Smith's declaration of a republic in 1970 was recognised only by South Africa,^[16][17] then governed by its apartheid administration.^[18][19] Over the years, the guerrilla fighting against Ian Smith's UDI government intensified. As a result, the Smith government opened negotiations with the leaders of ZAPU and ZANU.

Bishop Abel Muzorewa signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to British Foreign Minister Lord Carrington.

In March 1978, with his regime near the brink of collapse, Smith signed an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, who offered safeguards for white civilians. As a result of the Internal Settlement, elections were held in April 1979. The United African National Council (UANC) party won a majority in this election. On 1 June 1979, the leader of UANC, Abel Muzorewa, became the country's prime minister and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The internal settlement left control of the country's police, security forces, civil service and judiciary in white hands. It assured whites of about one-third of the seats in parliament.^[20] However, on June 12, the United States Senate voted to end economic sanctions against Zimbabwe Rhodesia.

Following the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), held in Lusaka, Zambia from August 1st to August 7t in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa and the leaders of the Patriotic Front to participate in a constitutional conference at Lancaster House. The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution and that elections should be supervised under British authority to enable Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence and the parties to settle their differences by political means. Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom, chaired the conference.^[21] The conference took place from September 10th to December 15th in 1979 with 47 plenary sessions. On December 1, 1979, delegations from the British and Rhodesian governments and the Patriotic Front signed the Lancaster House Agreement, ending the civil war.^[22]

Abel Muzorewa served briefly as prime minister in 1979.

Independence (1980–1999)

Britain's Lord Soames was appointed governor to oversee the disarming of revolutionary guerrillas, the holding of elections and the granting of independence to an uneasy coalition government with Joshua Nkomo, head of ZAPU. In the elections of February 1980, Mugabe and his ZANU won a landslide victory.^[23]

There was however opposition to a Shona win in Matabeleland. In November 1980 Enos Nkala made remarks at a rally in Bulawayo, in which he warned ZAPU that ZANU would deliver a few blows against them. This started the first Entumbane uprising, in which ZIPRA and ZANLA fought for two days.^[24]

In February 1981 there was a second uprising, which spread to Glenville and also to Connemara in the Midlands. ZIPRA troops in other parts of Matabeleland headed for Bulawayo to join the battle, and ex-Rhodesian units had to come in to stop the fighting. Over 300 people were killed.

These uprisings led to what has become known as Gukurahundi (Shona: "the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains"^[25]) or the Matabeleland Massacres, which ran from 1982 until 1985. Mugabe used his North Korean trained Fifth Brigade to crush any resistance in Matabeleland. It has been estimated that 20,000 Matabele were murdered and buried in mass graves which they were forced to dig themselves and hundreds of others were allegedly tortured.^[26] The violence ended after ZANU and ZAPU reached a unity agreement in 1988 that merged the two parties, creating ZANU-PF.^[27][28]

Elections in March 1990 resulted in another victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. Election observers estimated voter turnout at only 54% and found the campaign neither free nor fair.^[29][30]

During the 1990s students, trade unionists and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers also criticised the government during this time. In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.^[31][32] The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997, as 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the AIDS virus.^[33]

Decline (1999–present)

Land issues, which the liberation movement had promised to solve, re-emerged as the main issue for the ruling party around 1997. Despite majority rule and the existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, whites made up less than 1% of the population but held about 70% of the most arable land.^[34] Mugabe began to redistribute land to blacks in 2000 with a compulsory land redistribution.

The legality and constitutionality of the process has regularly been challenged in the Zimbabwean High and Supreme Courts; however, the policing agencies have rarely acted in accordance with court rulings on these matters. The confiscation of the farmland was affected by continuous droughts and lack of inputs and finance led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which was traditionally the country's leading export producing sector.^[35] Mining and tourism have surpassed agriculture. As a result, Zimbabwe is experiencing a severe hard-currency shortage that has led to hyperinflation and chronic shortages in imported fuel and consumer goods. In 2002, Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations on charges of human rights abuses during the land redistribution and of election tampering.^[36]

Following elections in 2005, the government initiated "Operation Murambatsvina", a purported effort to crack down on illegal markets and homes that had seen slums emerge in towns and cities. This action has been widely condemned by opposition and international figures, who charge that it has left a substantial section of urban poor homeless.^[37] The Zimbabwe government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population although they have yet to deliver any new housing for the forcibly removed people.^[38]

A map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008.

Zimbabwe's current economic and food crisis, described by some observers as the country's worst humanitarian crisis since independence, has been attributed in varying degrees to the government's price controls and land confiscations, the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and a drought affecting the entire region.^[39]

Life expectancy at birth for males in Zimbabwe has dramatically declined since 1990 from 60 to 44 years, among the lowest in the world. Life expectancy for females is even lower at 43 years. The amount of time a Zimbabwean citizen is expected to live healthily at birth is 34 for males and just 33 for females.^[40] Concurrently, the infant mortality rate has climbed from 53 to 81 deaths per 1,000 live births in the same period. As of 2009^[update], 1.2 million Zimbabweans live with HIV.^[41]

On March 29, 2008, Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a parliamentary election. The three major candidates were Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai (MDC-T), and Simba Makoni, an independent. The results of this election were withheld for four weeks, following which it was generally acknowledged that the MDC had achieved a significant majority of seats. However, Mugabe retained control because Tsvangirai did not win by the margin required by Zimbabwean law. Hence, the election results that would otherwise put Mugabe out of power, failed the opposition.

In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public health (with a major cholera outbreak in December) and various public considerations.^[42] Mining of diamonds at Marange in Chiadzwa became the subject of international attention as the World Diamond Council called for a clampdown on smuggling^[43] and more than 80 illegal miners were killed by the military.^[44]

In September 2008, a power-sharing agreement was reached between Mugabe and Tsvangirai, in which Mugabe remained president and Tsvangirai became prime minister. However, due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until February 13, 2009, two days after the swearing in of Tsvangirai as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe.

Administrative divisions

Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has a centralised government and is divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where official business is usually carried out.^[45]

The names of most of the provinces were generated from the Mashonaland and Matabeleland divide at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the First Matabele War. This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the Shona people and the Matabele people, although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a Provincial Governor, appointed by the President.^[46] The provincial government is run by a Provincial Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national government departments.^[47]

The provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and 1,200 wards (sometimes referred to as municipalities). Each district is headed by a District Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a Chief Executive Officer. The Rural District Council is comprised of elected ward councillors, the District Administrator and one representative of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in the district. Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments.^[48]

At the ward level there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising the elected ward councillor, the kraalheads (traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs) and representatives of Village Development Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an elected Village Development Committee and a Headman (traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead).^[49]

Government and politics

Robert Mugabe heading to the opening of Parliament

Zimbabwe is a semi-presidential system republic, which has a parliamentary government. Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an upper chamber, the Senate, was reinstated.^[50] The House of Assembly is the lower chamber of Parliament.

President Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (commonly abbreviated ZANU-PF) has been the dominant political party in Zimbabwe since independence.^[51] In 1987 then-prime minister Mugabe revised the constitution and made himself president. His ZANU party has won every election since independence. In particular, the elections of 1990 were nationally and internationally condemned as being rigged, with the second-placed party, Edgar Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement, winning only 20% of the vote.^[52] Presidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud.^[53] The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on March 31 and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and Jonathan Moyo, calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies.^[54] Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.

General elections were again held in Zimbabwe on March 30, 2008.^[55] The official results required a runoff between Mugabe and Morgan Tsvangirai, the opposition leader, however the MDC challenged these results, claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government. The runoff was scheduled for June 27, 2008. On June 22nd, however, citing the continuing unfairness of the process and refusing to participate in a "violent, illegitimate sham of an election process", Tsvangirai pulled out of the presidential run-off, effectively handing victory to Mugabe.^[56]

The MDC-T led by Morgan Tsvangirai is now the largest parliamentary party. The MDC was split into two factions. One faction (MDC-M), now led by Arthur Mutambara contested the elections to the Senate, while the other, led by Morgan Tsvangirai, opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that past elections were free and fair. However, the opposition parties have resumed participation in national and local elections as recently as 2006. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006 with Morgan Tsvangirai being elected to lead MDC-T, which has become more popular than the other group. Mutambara, a robotics professor and former NASA robotics specialist has replaced Welshman Ncube who was the interim leader of MDC-M after the split. Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the Senate elections, while the Mutambara faction participated and won five seats in the senate. The Mutambara formation has however been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are disillusioned by their manifesto. As of 2008, the Movement for Democratic Change has become the most popular, with crowds as large as 20,000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500–5,000 for the other formation.^[57]

On April 28, 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in Johannesburg that the two MDC formations were cooperating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority.^[58][59] Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain President without a parliamentary majority.^[59] On the same day, Silaigwana announced that the recounts for the final five constituencies had been completed, that the results were being collated and that they would be published on 29 April.^[60]

In mid-September of 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal which would see Mugabe retain control over the army. Donor nations have adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding efforts, which are estimated to take at least five years. On February 11, 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as Prime Minister by President Mugabe.

In November, 2008, the government of Zimbabwe spent $7.3 million donated by the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. A representative of the organization declined to speculate on how the money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and the government has failed to honor requests to return the money.^[61]

Human rights

Protesters against the Mugabe regime abroad; protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe.^[62]

There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe under the Mugabe administration and his party, the ZANU-PF.

According to human rights organisations such as Amnesty International^[63] and Human Rights Watch^[64] the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, freedom of movement and residence, freedom of assembly and the protection of the law. There have been alleged assaults on the media, the political opposition, civil society activists, and human rights defenders.

Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of brutal attacks by the police force, such as the crackdown on a March 11m 2007 Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) rally and several others during the 2008 election campaign.^[65] In the attacks of 2007, party leader Morgan Tsvangirai and 49 other opposition activists were arrested and severely beaten by the police. After his release, Morgan Tsvangirai told the BBC that he suffered head injuries and blows to the arms, knees and back, and that he lost a significant amount of blood.^[66] The police action was strongly condemned by the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the European Union and the United States.^[66] While noting that the activists had suffered injuries, but not mentioning the cause of them,^[67] the Zimbabwean government-controlled daily newspaper The Herald claimed the police had intervened after demonstrators "ran amok looting shops, destroying property, mugging civilians, and assaulting police officers and innocent members of the public". The newspaper also argued that the opposition had been "willfully violating the ban on political rallies".^[67]

The ZBC is the public broadcaster

There is also an abuse of human rights in the media. The Zimbabwean government suppresses freedom of the press and freedom of speech.^[63] It has also been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster, the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, as a propaganda tool.^[68] Newspapers critical of the government, such as the Daily News, closed after bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew their license.^[69][70] BBC News, Sky News, and CNN were banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe. In 2009 reporting restrictions on the BBC and CNN were lifted.^[71] Sky News continue to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa.^[72][73]

Armed forces

Flag of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces

The existence of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) is enshrined in the Constitution of Zimbabwe, Chapter X, 96 (1), which states that,

The ZDF was set up by the integration of three belligerent forces, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army, (ZIPRA) on one side and the Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) on the other at the end of the Rhodesian Bush War in 1980. The integration period saw the formation of The Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) and Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) as separate entities under the command of Rtd General Solomon Mujuru and Air Marshal Norman Walsh who retired in 1982, and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to the late Rtd Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai in 1985. Although integration took place in the ZNA, there was no integration in the Air Force of Zimbabwe. Ex ZIPRA and ex ZANLA members who joined the Air Force particularly between 1980 and early 1982 did so as individuals. Consequently, many did not make the so-called "grade" and were dismissed from the Force unlike their colleagues in the ZNA who were protected by the integration directive. Before Norman Walsh left the Air Force, military aircraft were destroyed through sabotage at Thornhill Air Base in Gweru. Arrests were made and this led to an exodus of white commissioned officers from the AFZ. The Government responded by transferring Major General Josiah Tungamirai from the ZNA to the AFZ, becoming an Air Vice Marshal, who later deputized Air Marshal Daudpota, seconded from the Pakistan Air Force. The integration commanders handed over the Zimbabwean flags to then Lieutenant General Vitalis Zvinavashe, who later became the first Commander Defence Forces (1993), and Air Marshal Perrance Shiri in 1992, and subsequently in the ZNA to then Lieutenant General Constantine Chiwenga in 1993.

The approval of the Defence Amendment Bill saw the setting up of a single command for the Defence Forces in 1995. The late General Vitalis Zvinavashe became the first commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces, with the commanders of both the Army and the Air Force falling under his command. Following his retirement in December 2003, General Constantine Chiwenga, was promoted and appointed Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the Army.^[74]

The ZNA currently has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about 5,139 men assigned.^[75] The Zimbabwe Republic Police (includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) is also part of the defence force of Zimbabwe and numbers 25,000.^[76]

In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila during the Second Congo War. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.

Zimbabwe National Army

Flag of the Army of Zimbabwe

The Zimbabwe National Army or ZNA was created in 1980 from elements of the Rhodesian Army, integrated to a greater or lesser extent with combatants from the ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrilla movements (the armed wings of, respectively, ZANU and ZAPU).

Following majority rule in early 1980, British Army trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla fighters into a battalion structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year a system was followed where the top-performing candidate became battalion commander. If he or she was from ZANLA, then his or her second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and vice versa.^[77] This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure. From early 1981 this system was abandoned in favour of political appointments, and ZANLA/ZANU fighters consequently quickly formed the majority of battalion commanders in the ZNA.

The ZNA was originally formed into four brigades, composed of a total of 28 battalions. The brigade support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while unintegrated battalions of the Rhodesian African Rifles were assigned to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades. The notorious Fifth Brigade was formed in 1981 and disbanded in 1988 after allegations of brutality and murder during the Brigade's occupation of Matabeleland in what has become known as Gukurahundi (Shona: "the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains").^[25][78] However the Brigade had been reformed by 2006, with its commander, Brigadier-General John Mupande praising its "rich history".^[79]

Economy

Zimbabwean exports in 2006

Crop production in Zimbabwe has considerably fallen in recent years

Mineral exports, agriculture, and tourism are the main foreign currency earners of Zimbabwe.^[80] The mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest platinum reserves being mined by Anglo-American and Impala Platinum.^[81] Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.^[82]

Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s (5.0% GDP growth per year) and 1990s (4.3% GDP growth per year). However, the economy declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and 18% in 2003.^[83] The government of Zimbabwe faces a variety of economic problems after having abandoned earlier efforts to develop a market-oriented economy. Problems include a shortage of foreign exchange, soaring inflation, and supply shortages. Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy.^[84]

The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption of the Mugabe regime and the eviction of more than 4,000 white farmers in the controversial land redistribution of 2000.^{[85][86][87][88]} Zimbabwe was previously an exporter of maize but has become a net importer.^[81] Tobacco exports and other exports of crops have also declined sharply.

Tourism was an important industry for the country, but has been failing in recent years. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife has died since 2000 due to poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread deforestation is potentially disastrous for the tourist industry.^[89]

Hyperinflation 2003-2009

Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an official estimated high of 11,200,000,000% in August 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office.^[90] This represented a state of hyperinflation, and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note.^[91] As of November 2008, unofficial figures put Zimbabwe's annual inflation rate at 516 quintillion per cent, with prices doubling every 1.3 days. Zimbabwe's inflation crisis is now (2009) the second worst inflation spike in history, behind the hyperinflationary crisis of Hungary in 1946, in which prices doubled every 15.6 hours.^[92] By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953.^[93] Local residents have largely resorted to buying essentials from neighbouring Botswana, South Africa and Zambia.

In 2005, the government, led by central bank governor Gideon Gono, started making overtures that white farmers could come back. There were 400 to 500 still left in the country, but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive.^[94] In January 2007, the government even let some white farmers sign long term leases.^[95] But, the government reversed course again and started demanding that all remaining white farmers leave the country or face jail.^[96][97]

In August 2006, a new revalued Zimbabwean dollar was introduced, equal to 1000 of the prior Zimbabwean. The exchange rate fell from 24 old Zimbabwean dollars per U.S. dollar (USD) in 1998 to 250,000 prior or 250 new Zimbabwean dollars per USD at the official rate,^[98] and an estimated 120,000,000 old or 120,000 revalued Zimbabwean dollars per US dollar on the parallel market,^[99] in June 2007.

In January, 2009, Zimbabwe introduced a new Z$100 trillion banknote.^[100] On January 29, in an effort to counteract his country's runaway inflation, acting Finance Minister Patrick Chinamasa announced that Zimbabweans will be permitted to use other, more stable currencies (e.g. Sterling, Euro, South African Rand and the United States Dollar) to do business, alongside the Zimbabwe dollar.^[101]

On February 2, 2009, the RBZ announced that a further 12 zeros were to be taken off the currency, with 1,000,000,000,000 (third) Zimbabwe dollars being exchanged for 1 new (fourth) dollar. New banknotes are to be introduced with a face value of Z$1, Z$5, Z$10, Z$20, Z$50, Z$100 and Z$500.The banknotes of the fourth dollar were to circulate alongside the third dollar, which remained legal tender until 30 June 2009.^[102]

Government view and international sanctions

Mugabe points to foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy, as well as the country's 80% formal unemployment rate.^[103] Critics of Mugabe's administration, including the majority of the international community, blame Mugabe's controversial programme which sought to seize land from white commercial farmers. Mugabe has repeatedly blamed sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe by the European Union and the United States for the state of the Zimbabwean economy. According to the United States, however, these sanctions target only seven specific businesses owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens.^[104] During a meeting of the Southern African Development Community in 2007, a call was issued for the sanctions to be removed.^[105]

Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidized. State regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and costly.^[106] Government spending was predicted to reach 67% of GDP in 2007.^[107] It used to be partly financed by printing money, which led to hyperinflation. The labor market is highly regulated; hiring a worker is cumbersome, firing a worker is difficult, and unemployment has risen to 80 % (2005).^[106]

In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic growth the Zimbabwean Dollar was suspended indefinitely on 12 April 2009.^[108] Zimbabwe now allows trade in the United States Dollar and various other currencies such as the South African Rand, Euro, Sterling, and Botswana Pula. The use of the US Dollar yielded enormous results within weeks as inflation actually fell below zero to -3 percent.

Demographics

Zimbabwe's total population is 12 million.^[109] According to the United Nations World Health Organisation, the life expectancy for men is 37 years and the life expectancy for women is 34 years of age, the lowest in the world in 2006.^[110] An association of doctors in Zimbabwe has made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service.^[111] The HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 20.1% for people aged 15–49 in 2006.^[112] UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.^[113]

Some 85% of Zimbabweans are Christian; 62% percent of the population attends religious services regularly.^[114] The largest Christian churches are Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist^[115] and Methodist. As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Besides Christianity, ancestral worship is the most practiced non-Christian religion, involving spiritual intercession; the Mbira Dza Vadzimu, which means "Voice of the Ancestors", an instrument related to many lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means "God the Creator" (musika vanhu in Shona). Around 1% of the population is Muslim.^[116]

Black ethnic groups make up 98% of the population. The majority people, the Shona, comprise 80 to 84%. The Ndebele are the second most populous with 10 to 15% of the population.^[117][118] The Ndebele descended from Zulu migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years, mainly for South Africa. Other Bantu ethnic groups make up the third largest with 2 to 5%. These are Venda, Tonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau and Nambya.^[118]

Minority ethnic groups include white Zimbabweans, mostly of British origin, but some are of Afrikaner, Greek, Portuguese and Dutch origin as well, who make up less than one percent of the total. The white population dropped from a peak of around 296,000 in 1975 to possibly 120,000 in 1999 and was estimated to be no more than 50,000 in 2002, and possibly much less.^[119] Most emigration has been to the United Kingdom (Between 200,000 and 500,000 Britons are of Zimbabwean origin), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Mixed-race citizens form 0.5% of the population and various Asian ethnic groups, mostly of Indian and Chinese origin, are also 0.5%.^[120] Asian immigrants are influential in the economic sector.

Language

Shona, Ndebele and English are the principal languages of Zimbabwe. Despite English being the official language, less than 2.5%, mainly the white and Coloured (mixed race) minorities, consider it their native language. The rest of the population speak Bantu languages such as Shona (76%), Ndebele (18%) and the other minority languages of Venda, Tonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau and Nambya.^[121] Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, Feso by Solomon Mutswairo, published in 1956.^[122] English is spoken primarily in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news is now broadcast in Shona, Ndebele and English.

Refugee crisis

The economic meltdown and repressive political measures in Zimbabwe have led to a flood of refugees into neighbouring countries. An estimated 3.4 million Zimbabweans, a quarter of the population, had fled abroad by mid 2007.^[123] Some 3 million of these have gone to South Africa.^[124]

Apart from the people who fled into the neighbouring countries, there are up to one million internally displaced persons (IDPs). There is no current comprehensive survey,^[125] although the following figures are available:

The above surveys do not include people displaced by Operation Chikorokoza Chapera or beneficiaries of the fast-track land reform programme but who have since been evicted.^[125]

Health

A map showing the spread of cholera in and around Zimbabwe put together from several sources.

At independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunization coverage, access to health care and contraceptive prevalence rate.^[128] Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have a achieved a good record of health development.^[129] However, these gains were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s,^[130] the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic^[81] and the economic crisis since the year 2000. Zimbabwe now has one of the lowest life expectancies on Earth – 44 for men and 43 for women,^[131] down from 60 in 1990. The rapid drop has been ascribed mainly to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Infant mortality has risen from 5.9% in the late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004.^[81]

The health system has more or less collapsed: By the end of November 2008, three of Zimbabwe's four major hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe Medical School and the fourth major hospital had two wards and no operating theatres working.^[132] Due to hyperinflation, those hospitals still open are not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines.^[133] The ongoing political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with medical knowledge.^[134]

In August 2008, large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing cholera epidemic. By December 2008 more than 10,000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces and the outbreak had spread to Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia.^[135][136] On December 4, 2008 the Zimbabwe government declared the outbreak to be a national emergency, and has asked for international aid.^[137][138] By March 9, 2009 The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began in August 2008, and the total number of cases recorded had reached 89,018.^[139] In Harare, the city council offered free graves to cholera victims.^[140] There have been signs that the disease is abating, with cholera infections down by about 50 percent to around 4,000 cases a week.^[139]

Education

Zimbabwe's adult literacy rate is amongst the highest in Africa

Zimbabwe had an adult literacy rate of approximately 90% which used to be amongst the highest in Africa.^{[141][142][143]} However, since 1995 the adult literacy rate of Zimbabwe has steadily decreased, a trend shared by other African countries.^[144] In 2010, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) found that Zimbabwe's literacy rate had climbed to a high of 92% and had, once again, become the highest in Africa.^[145][146] The education department has stated that 20,000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe's children have not progressed beyond primary school.^[147]

The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidised by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe.

Zimbabwe's education system consists of 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three month terms, broken up by one month holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with "O" level and "A" level subjects also offered in June.^[148]

There are seven public universities as well as four church-related universities in Zimbabwe that are fully internationally accredited.^[148] The University of Zimbabwe, the first and largest, was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of Mount Pleasant. Notable alumni from Zimbabwean universities include Welshman Ncube; Peter Moyo (of Amabhubesi); Tendai Biti, Secretary-General for the MDC; Chenjerai Hove, Zimbabwean poet, novelist and essayist; and Arthur Mutambara, President of one faction of the MDC. Many of the current politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in USA or other universities abroad.

The highest professional board for accountants is the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Zimbabwe (ICAZ) with direct relationships with similar bodies in South Africa, Canada, the UK and Australia. A qualified Chartered Accountant from Zimbabwe is also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper. In addition, Zimbabwean-trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully licensed doctors in the United States. The Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers (ZIE) is the highest professional board for engineers.

However, education in Zimbabwe became under threat since the economic changes in 2000 with teachers going on strike because of low pay, students unable to concentrate because of hunger and the price of uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main targets of Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters.^[149]

Media

The media of Zimbabwe, once initially diverse, have come under tight restriction in recent years by the government, particularly during the growing economic and political crisis in the country. The Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression. In fact, the media is hampered by political interference and the implementation of strict media laws. In its 2008 report, Reporters Without Borders ranked the Zimbabwean media as 151st out of 173.^[150] The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe, including the BBC (since 2001), CNN, CBC, Sky News, Channel 4, American Broadcasting Company, Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and Fox News. News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country. In July 2009 the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe. CNN welcomed the move. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media, Information and Publicity stated that, "the Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from carrying out lawful activities inside Zimbabwe".^[71] The BBC also welcomed the move saying, "we're pleased at being able to operate openly in Zimbabwe once again".^[151]

Private press used to be common, however since the 2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) was passed, a number have been shut down by the government, including The Daily News whose managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential The Zimbabwean.^[150][152] As a result, many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by exiled Zimbabweans. However, because the internet is currently unrestricted, many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by exiled journalists.^[153] Reporters Without Borders claims the media environment in Zimbabwe involves "surveillance, threats, imprisonment, censorship, blackmail, abuse of power and denial of justice are all brought to bear to keep firm control over the news."^[150]

In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive, power-sharing government. In May 2010 the Commission licensed three new privately-owned newspapers, including the previously banned Daily News, for publication.^[154] Reporters Without Borders described the decisions as a "major advance".^[155] In June 2010 NewsDay became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years.^[156]

Culture and recreation

Zimbabwe has many different cultures which may include beliefs and ceremonies, one of them being Shona. Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group is Shona. The Shona people have many sculptures and carvings of gods (idols) which are made with the finest materials available.

A Zimbabwe market place and bus terminus

Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980.^[157] Celebrations are held at either the National Sports Stadium or Rufaro Sports Stadium in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations doves are released to symbolise peace and fighter jets fly over and the national anthem is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe. The president also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium.^[158]

Arts

Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery, basketry, textiles, jewelry and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture has become world famous in recent years having first emerged in the 1940s. Most subjects of carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with sedimentary rocks such as soapstone, as well as harder igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare stone verdite. Shona sculpture in essence has been a fusion of African folklore with European influences. World renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas, Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika. Internationally, Zimbabwean sculptors have managed to influence a new generation of artists, particularly Black Americans, through lengthy apprenticeships with master sculptors in Zimbabwe. Contemporary artists like New York sculptor M. Scott Johnson and California sculptor Russel Albans have learned to fuse both African and Afro-diasporic aesthetics in a way that travels beyond the simplistic mimicry of African Art by some Black artists of past generations in the U.S.

Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. Charles Mungoshi is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona and his poems and books have sold well with both the black and white communities.^[159] Catherine Buckle has achieved international recognition with her two books African Tears and Beyond Tears which tell of the ordeal she went through under the 2000 Land Reform.^[160] Prime Minister of Rhodesia, the late Ian Smith, has also written two books — The Great Betrayal and Bitter Harvest. The book The House of Hunger by Dambudzo Marechera won an award in the UK in 1979 and the Nobel Prize-winning author Doris Lessing's first novel The Grass Is Singing is set in Rhodesia.

Internationally famous artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis of man into beast.^[161] Zimbabwean musicians like Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, the Bhundu Boys and Audius Mtawarira have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban areas.

Cuisine

Raw Boerewors.

Like in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. Meat, beef and to a lesser extent chicken are especially popular, though consumption has declined under the Mugabe regime due to falling incomes. "Mealie meal", also known as cornmeal, is used to prepare sadza or isitshwala and bota or ilambazi. Sadza is a porridge made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is usually eaten as lunch and dinner, usually with greens (such as spinach, chomolia, collard greens), beans and meat that has been stewed, grilled, or roasted. Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk, commonly known as lacto (mukaka wakakora), or dried Tanganyika sardine, known locally as kapenta or matemba. Bota is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or, sometimes, jam.^[162] Bota is usually eaten for breakfast.

Graduations, weddings, and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a goat or cow, which will be barbecued or roasted by the family.

Afrikaner recipes are popular though they are a small group (0.2%) within the white minority group. Biltong, a type of jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat to dry in the shade.^[163] Boerewors (Afrikaans pronunciation: [børəvɞɾs]) is served with sadza. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef rather than pork, and barbecued.

Since Zimbabwe was a British colony, they have adopted some English habits. For example, most people will have porridge in the morning, however they will still have 10 o'clock tea (midday tea). They will have lunch, which can be left-overs from the night before, freshly cooked sadza, or sandwiches (which is more common in the cities). After lunch there is usually 4 o'clock tea that is served before dinner. It is not uncommon for tea to be had after a dinner.

Sports

Football is the most popular of sports in Zimbabwe, although rugby union and Cricket also have a following, traditionally among the white minority. Zimbabwe has won eight Olympic medals, one in field hockey at the (boycotted) 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, and seven in swimming, three at the 2004 Summer Olympics and four at the 2008 Summer Olympics.

Zimbabwe has also done well in the Commonwealth Games and All-Africa Games in swimming with Kirsty Coventry obtaining 11 gold medals in the different competitions.^{[164][165][166][167]} Zimbabwe has also competed at Wimbledon and the Davis Cup in tennis, most notably with the Black family, which comprises Wayne Black, Byron Black and Cara Black. Zimbabwe has also done well in golf.

Music

Scouting

Boy Scouts Association of Zimbabwe

It was in the Matabeleland region in Zimbabwe that, during the Second Matabele War, Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting, and Frederick Russell Burnham, the American born Chief of Scouts for the British Army, first met and began their life-long friendship.^[168] In mid-June 1896, during a scouting patrol in the Matobo Hills, Burnham began teaching Baden-Powell woodcraft. Baden-Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men, rich in exploration, tracking, fieldcraft, and self-reliance.^[169] It was also during this time in the Matobo Hills that Baden-Powell first started to wear his signature campaign hat like the one worn by Burnham.^[170]

Scouting in the former Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1909 when the first Boy Scout troop was registered. Scouting grew quickly and in 1924 Rhodesia and Nyasaland sent a large contingent to the second World Scout Jamboree in Ermelunden, Denmark. In 1959, Rhodesia hosted the Central African Jamboree at Ruwa. In 2009, Scouts celebrated 100 years of Scouting in Zimbabwe and hundreds of Scouts camped at Gordon Park, a Scout campground and training area, as part of these celebrations.^[171]

Tourism

The logo of the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority showing the Victoria Falls and the Zimbabwe Bird found at Great Zimbabwe

Victoria Falls, the end of the upper Zambezi and beginning of the middle Zambezi

Since the Land Reform programme in 2000, tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily declined. After rising during the 1990s, (1.4 million tourists in 1999) industry figures described a 75% fall in visitors to Zimbabwe in 2000. By December, less than 20% of hotel rooms had been occupied.^[172] This has had a huge impact on the Zimbabwean economy. Thousands of jobs have been lost in the industry due to companies closing down or simply being unable to pay staff wages due to the decreasing number of tourists.

Several airlines have also pulled out of Zimbabwe. Australia's Qantas, Germany's Lufthansa and Austrian Airlines were among the first to pull out and most recently British Airways suspended all direct flights to Harare.^[172][173] The country's flagship airline Air Zimbabwe still flies to the United Kingdom.

Zimbabwe boasts several major tourist attractions. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River, which are shared with Zambia, are located in the north west of Zimbabwe. Before the economic changes, much of the tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side but now Zambia is the main beneficiary. The Victoria Falls National Park is also in this area and is one of the eight main national parks in Zimbabwe,^[174] largest of which is Hwange National Park.

The Eastern Highlands are a series of mountainous areas near the border with Mozambique. The highest peak in Zimbabwe, Mount Nyangani at 2,593 m (8,507 ft) is located here as well as the Bvumba Mountains and the Nyanga National Park. World's View is in these mountains and it is from here that places as far away as 60–70 km (37–43 mi) are visible and, on clear days, the town of Rusape can be seen.

Great Zimbabwe as featured on the defunct $50 note

Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient ruined cities built in a unique dry stone style. The most famous of these are the Great Zimbabwe ruins in Masvingo. Other ruins include Khami Ruins, Zimbabwe, Dhlo-Dhlo and Naletale, although none of these is as famous as Great Zimbabwe.

The Matobo Hills are an area of granite kopjes and wooded valleys commencing some 22 miles (35 km) south of Bulawayo in southern Zimbabwe. The Hills were formed over 2,000 million years ago with granite being forced to the surface, then being eroded to produce smooth "whaleback dwalas" and broken kopjes, strewn with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation. Mzilikazi, founder of the Ndebele nation, gave the area its name, meaning 'Bald Heads'. They have become famous and a tourist attraction due to their ancient shapes and local wildlife. Cecil John Rhodes and other early white pioneers like Leander Starr Jameson are buried in these hills at a site named World's View.^[175]

National symbols, insignia, and anthems

The two main traditional symbols of Zimbabwe are the Zimbabwe Bird and the Balancing Rocks.

Other national symbols exist, but have varying degrees of official usage, such as the flame lily and the Sable Antelope.

Zimbabwe Bird

The stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird appears on the national flags and the coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia, as well as on banknotes and coins (first on Rhodesian pound and then Rhodesian dollar). It probably represents the bateleur eagle.

The famous soapstone bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe, built, it is believed, sometime between the 13th and 16th centuries by ancestors of the Shona. The ruins, which gave their name to modern Zimbabwe, cover some 1,800 acres (7.3 km²) and are the largest ancient stone construction in Zimbabwe.^[176]

When the ruins of Great Zimbabwe were excavated by treasure-hunters in the late 19th century, five of the carved birds they discovered were taken to South Africa by Cecil Rhodes. Four of the statues were returned to Zimbabwe by the South African government at independence, while the fifth remains at Groote Schuur, Rhodes' former home in Cape Town.

Balancing Rocks

Balancing Rocks are geological formations all over Zimbabwe. The rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks surrounding them erode away. They are often remarked on and have been depicted on both the paper money of the Zimbabwean dollar and the paper money of the Rhodesian dollar. The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are located in Epworth, approximately 9 miles (15 km) south east of Harare.^[177] There are, however, many different formations of the rocks, incorporating single and paired columns of 3 or more rocks. These formations are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to Sudan. The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the Matobo National Park in Matabeleland.

National anthem

"Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe" (Shona: "Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe"; Northern Ndebele: "Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe") is the national anthem of Zimbabwe. It was introduced in March 1994 after a nation-wide competition to replace "Ishe Komborera Africa" as a distinctly Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a song written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo and composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main languages of Zimbabwe.

Reverse side of the defunct ten cent coin featuring the Zimbabwe Bird

Traditional Zimbabwe Bird design

The flame lily, national flower of Zimbabwe

International rankings

See also

Further reading

• Barclay, Philip. Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair (2010)
• JoAnn McGregor and Ranka Primorac, eds. Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival (Berghahn Books; 2010) 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse.
• Meredith, Martin.Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future (2007) excerpt and text search
• Smith, Ian Douglas. Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence (2008) excerpt and text search

References

External links

• Humanitarian information coverage on ReliefWeb
• Zimbabwe entry at The World Factbook
• Zimbabwe from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Zimbabwe at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of Zimbabwe
• Global Integrity Report: Zimbabwe—anti-corruption policy scorecard
• Parliament of Zimbabwe—official government site
• Zimbabwe Government Online—official government site and mirror site
• Chief of State and Cabinet Members
• Zimbabwe travel guide from Wikitravel

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Geographic locale Countries and territories of Africa West Africa Benin · Burkina Faso · Cape Verde · Côte d'Ivoire · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Liberia · Mali · Mauritania · Niger · Nigeria · Senegal · Sierra Leone · Togo North Africa Algeria · Egypt · Libya · Mauritania · Morocco · Sudan · Tunisia Central Africa Angola · Burundi · Cameroon · Central African Republic · Chad · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Equatorial Guinea · Gabon · Rwanda · São Tomé and Príncipe East Africa Burundi · Comoros · Djibouti · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Kenya · Madagascar · Mauritius · Mozambique · Seychelles · Somalia · Tanzania · Uganda Southern Africa Botswana · Lesotho · Malawi · Namibia · South Africa · Swaziland · Zambia · Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic · Somaliland Partially in Africa France (Réunion) · Italy (Pantelleria) · Portugal (Madeira) · Spain (Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla / Plazas de soberanía) · Yemen (Socotra) Dependencies Îles Éparses (France) · Mayotte (France) · Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom) Unclear sovereignty Western Sahara Subdivisions of Zimbabwe Provinces Bulawayo · Harare · Manicaland · Mashonaland Central · Mashonaland East · Mashonaland West · Masvingo · Matabeleland North · Matabeleland South · Midlands Districts Beitbridge · Bikita · Bindura · Binga · Bubi · Buhera · Bulawayo · Bulilimamangwe · Chegutu · Chikomba · Chimanimani · Chipinge · Chiredzi · Chirumhanzu · Chivi · Gokwe North · Gokwe South · Goromonzi · Guruve · Gutu · Gwanda · Gweru · Harare · Hurungwe · Hwange · Hwedza · Insiza · Kadoma · Kariba · Kwekwe · Lupane · Makonde · Makoni · Marondera · Masvingo · Matobo · Mazowe · Mberengwa · Mount Darwin · Mudzi · Mukumbura · Murehwa · Mutare · Mutasa · Mutoko · Muzarabani · Mwenezi · Nkayi · Nyanga · Rushinga · Seke · Shamva · Shurugwi · Tsholotsho · Umguza · Umzingwane · Uzumba-Maramba-Pfungwe · Wedza · Zaka · Zvimba · Zvishavane Wards Wards of Zimbabwe Largest cities Harare · Bulawayo · Chitungwiza · Mutare · Gweru · Kwekwe · Kadoma · Masvingo · Chinhoyi · Marondera Niger-Congo-speaking nations   Kordofanian  Sudan   Mande      Gambia  Guinea  Guinea-Bissau  Mali  Mauritania  Senegal  Sierra Leone  Liberia  Côte d'Ivoire  Nigeria  Burkina Faso  Benin  Togo   Atlantic-Congo     Atlantic  Benin  Burkina Faso  Cameroon  CAR Ijoid  Nigeria  Chad  Côte d'Ivoire  Gambia  Guinea Dogon  Mali  Guinea-Bissau  Liberia  Mali  Mauritania  Niger  Senegal  Sierra Leone  Sudan  Togo   Volta-Congo     Senufo  Benin  Côte d'Ivoire  Mali Gur  Benin  Burkina Faso  Côte d'Ivoire  Ghana  Mali  Nigeria  Togo Adamawa-Ubangi  Cameroon  CAR  Chad  Nigeria Kru  Burkina Faso  Côte d'Ivoire  Liberia Kwa  Benin  Côte d'Ivoire  Ghana  Nigeria  Togo   Benue-Congo     Bantu  Angola  Botswana  Burundi  Cameroon  DRC Yoruba and Igbo  Nigeria  Rep. of the Congo  Equatorial Guinea  Gabon  Kenya  Lesotho  Nigeria  Malawi  Mozambique  Namibia  Rwanda  South Africa  Swaziland  Tanzania  Uganda  Zambia  Zimbabwe CAR = Central African Republic • DRC = Democratic Republic of the Congo

International membership Nations in the Group of 15 (G-15)      Algeria  Argentina  Brazil  Chile  Egypt  India  Indonesia  Iran  Jamaica  Kenya  Malaysia  Mexico  Nigeria  Peru  Senegal  Sri Lanka  Venezuela  Zimbabwe Southern African Development Community Member states Angola · Botswana · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Lesotho · Madagascar · Malawi · Mauritius · Mozambique · Namibia · South Africa · Swaziland · Tanzania · Zambia · Zimbabwe Leaders Chairpersons: Levy Mwanawasa · Kgalema Motlanthe Secretaries-General: Kaire Mbuende · Prega Ramsamy · Tomaz Salomão See also Southern African Development Coordination Conference · Southern African Customs Union · Common Monetary Area · Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa African Union (AU) Algeria · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cameroon · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Equatorial Guinea · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Kenya · Lesotho · Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Seychelles · Sierra Leone · Somalia · South Africa · Sudan · Swaziland · Tanzania · Togo · Tunisia · Uganda · Zambia · Zimbabwe

History British Empire and Commonwealth of Nations Legend Current territory  ·   Former territory * now a Commonwealth Realm  ·   now a member of the Commonwealth of Nations Europe  18th century 1708–1757  Minorca since 1713  Gibraltar 1763–1782  Minorca 1798–1802  Minorca 19th century 1800–1964  Malta 1807–1890  Heligoland 1809–1864  Ionian Islands 20th century 1921-1937  Irish Free State North America  17th century 1607–1776  Virginia 1610–1907  Newfoundland since 1619  Bermuda 1620–1691  Plymouth Colony 1629–1691  Massachusetts Bay Colony 1632–1776  Maryland 1636–1776  Connecticut 1636–1776  Rhode Island 1637–1662  New Haven Colony 1663–1712  Carolina 1664–1776  New York 1665–1674 and 1702-1776  New Jersey 1670–1870  Rupert's Land 1674–1702  East Jersey 1674–1702  West Jersey 1680–1776  New Hampshire 1681–1776  Pennsylvania 1686–1689  Dominion of New England 1691–1776  Massachusetts 18th century 1701–1776  Delaware 1712–1776  North Carolina 1712–1776  South Carolina 1713–1867  Nova Scotia 1733–1776  Georgia 1763–1873  Prince Edward Island 1763–1791  Quebec 1763–1783  East Florida 1763–1783  West Florida 1784–1867  New Brunswick 1791–1841  Lower Canada 1791–1841  Upper Canada 19th century 1818–1846  Columbia District / Oregon Country1 1841–1867  Province of Canada 1849–1866  Vancouver Island 1853–1863  Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands 1858–1866  British Columbia 1859–1870  North-Western Territory 1862–1863  Stikine Territory 1866–1871  Vancouver Island and British Columbia 1867–1931  *Dominion of Canada2 20th century 1907–1949  Dominion of Newfoundland3 1Occupied jointly with the United States 2In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained self-government through the Statute of Westminster. see Canada's name. 3Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949. Latin America and the Caribbean  17th century 1605–1979  *Saint Lucia 1623–1883  Saint Kitts (*Saint Kitts & Nevis) 1624–1966  *Barbados 1625–1650  Saint Croix 1627–1979  *St. Vincent and the Grenadines 1628–1883  Nevis (*Saint Kitts & Nevis) 1629–1641  St. Andrew and Providence Islands4 since 1632  Montserrat 1632–1860  Antigua (*Antigua & Barbuda) 1643–1860  Bay Islands since 1650  Anguilla 1651–1667  Willoughbyland (Suriname) 1655–1850  Mosquito Coast (protectorate) 1655–1962  *Jamaica since 1666  British Virgin Islands since 1670  Cayman Islands 1670–1973  *Bahamas 1670–1688  St. Andrew and Providence Islands4 1671–1816  Leeward Islands 18th century 1762–1974  *Grenada 1763–1978  Dominica since 1799  Turks and Caicos Islands 19th century 1831–1966  British Guiana (Guyana) 1833–1960  Windward Islands 1833–1960  Leeward Islands 1860–1981  *Antigua and Barbuda 1871–1964  British Honduras (*Belize) 1882–1983  *St. Kitts and Nevis 1889–1962  Trinidad and Tobago 20th century 1958–1962  West Indies Federation 4Now the San Andrés y Providencia Department of Colombia Africa  18th century 1792–1961  Sierra Leone 1795–1803  Cape Colony 19th century 1806–1910  Cape Colony 1816–1965  Gambia 1856–1910  Natal 1868–1966  Basutoland (Lesotho) 1874–1957  Gold Coast (Ghana) 1882–1922  Egypt 1884–1966  Bechuanaland (Botswana) 1884–1960  British Somaliland 1887–1897  Zululand 1888–1894  Matabeleland 1890–1980  Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) 1890–1962  Uganda 1890–1963  Zanzibar (Tanzania) 1891–1964  Nyasaland (Malawi) 1891–1907  British Central Africa Protectorate 1893–1968  Swaziland 1895–1920  East Africa Protectorate 1899–1956  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 20th century 1900–1914  Northern Nigeria 1900–1914  Southern Nigeria 1900–1910  Orange River Colony 1900–1910  Transvaal Colony 1906–1954  Nigeria Colony 1910–1931  South Africa 1911–1964  Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) 1914–1954  Nigeria Colony and Protectorate 1915–1931  South West Africa (Namibia) 1919–1960  Cameroons (Cameroon) 5 1920–1963  Kenya 1922–1961  Tanganyika (Tanzania) 5 1954–1960  Nigeria 5League of Nations mandate Asia  17th Century 1685-1824  Bencoolen (Sumatra) 18th century 1702–1705  Côn Đảo 1757–1947  Bengal (West Bengal (India) and Bangladesh) 1762–1764  Philippines 1795–1948  Ceylon (Sri Lanka) 1796–1965  Maldives 19th century 1819–1826  British Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore) 1826–1946  Straits Settlements 1839–1967  Colony of Aden 1839–1842  Afghanistan 1841–1997  Hong Kong 1841–1941  Kingdom of Sarawak (Malaysia) 1858–1947  British India (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, Burma) 1879–1919  Afghanistan 1882–1963  British North Borneo (Malaysia) 1885–1946  Unfederated Malay States 1888–1984  Sultanate of Brunei 1888–1946  Sultanate of Sulu 1891–1971  Muscat and Oman protectorate 1892–1971  Trucial States protectorate 1895–1946  Federated Malay States 1898–1930  Weihai Garrison 1878–1960  Cyprus 20th century 1918–1961  Kuwait protectorate 1920–1932  Iraq5 1921–1946  Transjordan5 1923–1948  Palestine5 1945–1946  South Vietnam 1946–1948  Malayan Union 1946–1963  Sarawak (Malaysia) 1948–1957  Federation of Malaya (Malaysia) since 1960  Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus) since 1965  British Indian Ocean Territory 5League of Nations mandate Oceania  18th century 1788–1901  New South Wales 19th century 1803–1901  Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania 1807–1863  Auckland Islands6 1824–1980  New Hebrides (Vanuatu) 1824–1901  Queensland 1829–1901  Swan River Colony/Western Australia 1836–1901  South Australia since 1838  Pitcairn Islands 1841–1907  Colony of New Zealand 1851–1901  Victoria 1874–1970  Fiji7 1877–1976  British Western Pacific Territories 1884–1949  Territory of Papua 1888–1965  Cook Islands6 1889–1948  Union Islands (Tokelau)6 1892–1979  Gilbert and Ellice Islands8 1893–1978  British Solomon Islands9 20th century 1900–1970  Tonga (protected state) 1900–1974  Niue6 1901–1942  *Commonwealth of Australia 1907–1953  *Dominion of New Zealand 1919–1942  Nauru 1945–1968  Nauru 1919–1949  Territory of New Guinea 1949–1975  Territory of Papua and New Guinea10 6Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand 7Suspended member 8Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu 9Now the *Solomon Islands 10Now *Papua New Guinea Antarctica and South Atlantic  17th century since 1659  St. Helena 19th century since 1815  Ascension Island11 since 1816  Tristan da Cunha11 since 1833  Falkland Islands12 20th century since 1908  British Antarctic Territory13 since 1908  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands12, 13 11Dependencies of St. Helena since 1922 (Ascension Island) and 1938 (Tristan da Cunha) 12Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982 13Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands)  Languages of Zimbabwe Dombe · English · Fanagalo · Kalanga · Kunda · Lozi  · Manyika · Nambya · Ndau · Northern Ndebele · Nsenga · Nyanja · Shona · Tonga · Tsoa  · Tsonga · Tswa · Tswana · Venda  · Zimbabwe Sign Language/Zimsign